Korean J healthc assoc Infect Control Prev 2022; 27(1): 4-17
Published online June 30, 2022 https://doi.org/10.14192/kjicp.2022.27.1.4
Copyright © Korean Society for Healthcare-associated infection Control and Prevention
Department of Laboratory Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Korea
Correspondence to: Jong Hee Shin
E-mail: shinjh@chonnam.ac.kr
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9593-476X
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0).
Since it was first reported in 2009 after isolation from ear cultures of 1 Japanese patient and 15 Korean patients, Candida auris infections have been reported in at least 35 countries on 6 continents. The global emergence of C. auris raises several serious concerns for public health due to the high rates of antifungal drug resistance, organism misidentification, and high transmissibility among hospitalised patients, leading to nosocomial outbreaks and significant patient mortality. Furthermore, during the last 10 years, outbreaks or invasive healthcare-associated infections due to C. auris have been frequently reported in many countries, highlighting that adequate laboratory capacity and infection control preparedness are required to prevent spread within hospitals.
Keywords: Candida auris, Infection control, Antifungal drug resistance, Outbreaks
병원 내 전파 및 집단 감염을 일으킨
최근 국내 다기관에서 수집된 균주를 대상으로 한 연구에서는 1996년 이래 국내병원에서 분리되고 있는
2014년에서 2017년 사이의 4년 동안 1개 대학병원에서 귀에서 분리되는 효모 균주의 균종과 항진균제 감수성 및 임상 특성을 조사한 결과, Candida parapsilosis complex와
또 다른 국내 단일기관 연구에서는 2016년부터 2018년까지 임상검체에서 분리된 전체 칸디다 균주 중
검사실에서 통상적인 생화학적 미생물 동정 장비를 사용하여
Table 1 . Identification of
Identification method | Instrument | Database/software | Specific method | No. of isolates | Correct ID | Incomplete ID | No ID | Incorrect ID | [Ref] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MALDI-TOF MS | Bruker Biotyper | Library v4.0 | In-tube FA/ACN | 73 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | [41] |
On-plate FA | 73 | 83.6 | 0 | 16.4 | 0 | [41] | |||
RUO library v3.3.1.0 | In-tube FA/ACN | 61 | 75.4 | 13.1 | 11.5 | 0 | [26] | ||
CMdb alone | In-tube FA/ACN | 33 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | [43] | ||
RUO | In-tube FA/ACN | 33 | 39.4 | NA | NA | NA | [43] | ||
EPdbs | In-tube FA/ACN | 33 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | [43] | ||
MBT Compass Library, Revision E MBT 7854 MSP library | Plate agar (SDA) | 50 | 94.0 | 6.0 | 0 | 0 | [44] | ||
Positive blood culture | 50 | 92.0 | 8.0 | 0 | 0 | [44] | |||
ASTA | CoreDB v1.27.02* | On-plate FA | 73 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | [41] | |
VITEK MS | RUO library v4.14 | On-plate FA | 61 | 93.4 | 6.6 | 0 | 0 | [26] | |
IVD library v3.2 | On-plate FA | 61 | 96.7 | 0 | 3.3 | 0 | [26] | ||
Biochemical | Vitek 2 | v8.01† | 35 | 52.4 | 26.7 | 0 | 21.0‡ | [45] |
*MALDI-TOF MS system in this study (ASTA) can differentiate clade II
†The overall identification rate seems to differ according to
‡The majority (91%) of samples were reported as
Abbreviations: ID, identification; MALDI-TOF MS, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry; FA/ACN, formic acid plus acetonitrile; RUO, research use only; NA, not available; SDA, sabouraud dextrose agar; IVD, in vitro diagnostics
Table 2 . Antifungal resistance of
Region | Year | No. of isolates | Sample (No. of isolates) | Method | Resistance for antifungal agents (%)* | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FLU | VRC | AMB | CAS | MFG | AFG | 5FC | MDR | [Ref] | |||||
UK | 2016 | 50 | Blood, sputum, environmental and body swap† | SYO | 100 | NA | NA | 0‡ | 0 | NA | [6] | ||
Pakistan, India, South Africa, Venezuela | 2017 | 54 | Blood (27), urine (10), soft tissue (5), wound (4), BAL (3), CVC tip (2), other sites (3) | CLSI BMD | 92.6 | 53.7 | 35.2 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.7 | 5.6 | 41 | [11] |
India | 2018 | 350 | Blood (267), urine (28), tissue (25), sputum (12), skin swap (9), pus (6), other sites (3) | CLSI BMD | 90.3 | 14.9 | 7.7 | NA§ | 2.0 | 2.0 | NA | 25.1 | [7] |
US | 2018 | 51 | Blood (31), bile (3), urine (4), respiratory specimens (4), wounds (3), catheter tips (2), other sites (3) | Custom TREK frozen BMD panels (Etest for AMB, 5FC) | 98.0 | NA | 29.4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | NA | NA | [14] |
US | 2018 | 99 | NA | CLSI BMD (Etest for AMB) | 88.9 | NA | 33.3 | 6.1‡ | NA | 39.4 | [36] | ||
UK | 2018 | 80 | NA∥ | SYO | 100 | 97.5 | 17.7 | NA | 0 | NA | 0 | NA | [48] |
Kuwait | 2018 | 56 | Blood (13), urine (27), tracheal aspirate (21), catheter tip (5), sputum (6), vaginal swab (4), other sites (12) | Etest | 100 | 73.2 | 23.2 | 1.8 | 1.8 | NA | NA | 19.6 | [49] |
Colombia | 2018 | 93 | NA | CLSI BMD (Etest for AMB) | 30.1 | NA | 21.5 | NA | NA | 1.1 | NA | 1.1 | [50] |
Korea | 2019 | 61 | Blood (4), ear (57) | CLSI | 62.3 | 9.8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | NA | NA | 0 | [26] |
Pakistan | 2019 | 63 | NA | SYO, Etest | 100 | 28.6 | 7.9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | NA | 4.8 | [31] |
Japan | 2019 | 13 | Otorrhea (12), eustachian tube (1) | NA | 15.4 | 7.7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | NA | 0 | 0 | [54] |
Kuwait | 2020 | 314 | Blood (58), urine (124), respiratory (98), other sites (34)¶ | Etest | 100 | 41.1 | 27.1 | NA | 1.7 | NA | 0 | NA | [33] |
Kuwait | 2020 | 62 | Blood (16)/colonization (46) | MICRONAUT-AM AST/Etest | 93.8/ 87.0 | 93.8/ 23.8 | 0/0 | NA§ | 0/4.3 | 0/4.3 | NA | NA | [34] |
South Africa | 2020 | 85 | Urine (22), blood (20), CVC tips (19), irrigation fluid (5), tissue (4), respiratory tract specimen (3), miscellaneous sites (12) | BMD panels containing alamar blue | 96.5 | 7.1 | 0 | NA§ | 8.2 | 1.2 | 0 | 8.2 | [35] |
US | 2020 | 277/ 116** | Blood (140), Urine (64), wound (37), lung (23), Bile (4), corneal, eye (2), ear (1), bone (1), stool (1), unspecified (4)/NA | CLSI (Etest for AMB, 5FC) | 99.6/ 100 | 80.9/ 82.8 | 61.4/ 57.8 | 0/2.6 | 0/3.4 | 0/2.6 | 0.7/5.1 | NA | [37] |
South Africa | 2021 | 77 | Blood (77) | CLSI | 89.6 | NA | 29.9 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 0 | NA | 9.1 | [38] |
*Results of resistance were analyzed using the tentative MIC breakpoints for
†Number of isolates from specimen is not specified
‡Echinocandins, not specified
§Caspofungin MICs were not interpreted because caspofungin is an unreliable indicator of echinocandin resistance
∥Tested isolates for FLU, VRC, AMB, MFG, 5FC were 79, 78, 79, 77, 79, respectively
¶Tested isolates for FLU, VRC, AMB, MFG, 5FC were 314, 260, 314, 169, 137, respectively
**First clinical isolates (277)/subsequent clinical isolates (116)
Abbreviations: FLU, fluconazole; VRC, voriconazole; AMB, amphotericin B; CAS, caspofungin; MFG, micafungin; AFG, anidulafungin; 5FC, flucytosine; MDR, multidrug resistance; SYO, Sensititre YeastOne; NA, not available; BAL, bronchoalveolar lavage; CVC, central venous catheter; CLSI, Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute; BMD, broth microdilution; AST, antifungal susceptibility test; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Table 3 . Infection prevention and control measure for
Infection prevention and control measures | Recommendation | [Ref] | |
---|---|---|---|
Patients control | Single room | Isolate patients in a single room | [22-25,59] |
Priority assignment of single rooms to patients at high risk of pathogen transmission | [22] | ||
Ideally with negative pressure, and preferably with an ante-room and en-suite bathroom/toilet | [24,25,59] | ||
Shared room | Isolate Patients with the | [22-25,59] | |
Recommended practices to reduce transmission in shared rooms;Maintain at least 3 feet distance between roommatesUse privacy curtainsClean and disinfect any shared reusable equipment and environmental surfacesChange PPE and perform hand hygiene when moving between patients | [22] | ||
Cohorting | Consider cohorting patients with | [22-24,59] | |
Consider cohorting healthcare personnel (e.g., dedicated nursing staff) | [22,23] | ||
Patients movement | If a patient needs to be taken out of the isolation room (e.g., for imaging, dialysis, rehabilitation);Scheduled them last on the list for the dayClean and disinfect the environment after they have been used | [22,24,25,59] | |
Transmission-based precaution | Hand hygiene | Follow standard hand hygiene practices;Adherence to the five moments of hand hygieneUse a 70% alcohol-based hand sanitizerWash with soap and water If hands are visibly soiled | [22-25,59] |
Increase hand hygiene audits; Re-educate healthcare personnel on hand hygiene, if audits demonstrate low adherence to recommended hand hygiene practices | [22-24] | ||
Contact precautions | Consider using single-patient items (e.g., blood pressure cuffs, pillows) Clean and disinfect shared equipment | [22,24,25,59] | |
Use PPE when in contact with patients | [22,24,59] | ||
Continue setting appropriate TBP for the entire duration of the patient’s stay in the facility | [22,59] | ||
Prevention of invasive infections | Appropriate care of invasive medical devices | Strict adherence to central and peripheral catheter care bundles, urinary catheter care bundle and care of the tracheostomy site Continuously assess the need for invasive devices | [22,24] |
Environmental disinfection and cleaning | Cleaning and disinfection | Perform thorough daily and terminal cleaning and disinfection of patients’ rooms;High-touch surfaces (bedside tables and bedrails)General environmental surfaces (e.g., floor, walls, windowsills)Mobile equipment that is shared between patients | [22-25,59] |
Disinfectant | CDC recommends use of an EPA–registered hospital-grade disinfectant effective against | [22,61] | |
Use of an EPA-registered hospital-grade disinfectant effective against | [22,62] | ||
Follow all manufacturers’ directions for use of surface disinfectants and applying the product for the correct contact time | [22-25,61] |
Abbreviations: PPE, personal protective equipment; CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; EPA, Environmental Protection Agency
모든 가이드라인에서 접촉주의, 표준주의를 포함한 기본적인 감염 관리 중재 방안과 손 위생 지침을 준수하는 것이 강조되었다[22-25,59].
환자에게 사용되는 의료 물품, 의료 기기는 가능한 일회용 또는 환자 전용 기구를 사용할 것이 권고되었다. 의료기기를 여러 환자에게 공유해서 사용해야 하는 경우에는 사용 후 반드시 적절한 소독제로 소독한다[22,24,25,59]. 의료진이 환자를 접촉해야 하는 경우 장갑, 일회용 가운을 착용하고 비말이 발생할 위험이 있는 경우에는 마스크, 안면보호대를 착용하는 등 적절한 개인보호장비를 착용해야 한다[22,24,59].
원내에
국외에서 발표된
선별검사 결과 양성일 경우에는 격리를 포함한
검사실 및 시스템적 중재 방안에 대해 Table 4에 정리하였다.
Table 4 . Laboratory and systemic considerations for infection prevention and control of
Infection prevention and control measures | Recommendation | [Ref] | |
---|---|---|---|
Laboratory consideration | Retrospective investigation | Check whether there was an increase in | [22] |
Prospective surveillance | Speciate all | [22-24] | |
Safety concern | Use personal protective equipment, at least lab coat and gloves Use a biological safety cabinet (in at least BSL-2) Decontaminate the biological safety cabinet with 10% bleach (or another product on List P) and perform hand hygiene after work with | [22] | |
Use reliable identification method | Notify laboratory/microbiologist that | [25] | |
Systemic considerations | Communication within facility | Prompt notification of | [23,25] |
Education/training/monitoring | Educate all healthcare workers, including cleaning staff, patients, and visitors about | [22-25] | |
Monitor adherence to infection control practices including hand hygiene Cleaning and disinfecting should be monitored and audited | [22,25] | ||
Electronic flagging system | Label | [22,24,59] | |
Antimicrobial stewardship | An environment with a high level of broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal use will favor the emergence of multidrug-resistant yeasts Mitigate the risks of Essential component of strategies to reduce antimicrobial resistance in general The need for antifungal prophylaxis should be reviewed | [22,23,25] | |
Communication to other facilities | Inform the receiving health care facility of the patient's Consider the ability of the accepting facility to provide care for patient | [22,23,59] | |
National guidelines | Consider prepare national guidelines for laboratory testing and infection control measures for Designate national mycology reference laboratory Consider updating list of surveillance systems for healthcare-associated infections to include | [23] |
Abbreviation: BSL, biosafety level
병원내
국가적으로는
병원내 집단 발병 시 집락화 환자에게 탈집락화를 위해 매일 chlorhexidine을 이용한 피부 및 구강 세척을 시행하였음에도
칸디다 감염 치료에 가장 흔히 사용되는 fluconazole에 대해
Echinocandin 내성 또는 범약제내성을 보이는 균주가 증가하는 추세로 항진균제 선택에 어려움을 겪게 하는 주요한 요인이 되고 있다[22,51]. 이러한 균종들에 대한 항진균제 감수성을 시험하였을 때, 범약제내성을 보이는
본 연구는 질병관리청 연구용역사업 연구비를 지원받아 수행되었습니다(#2020E540600). Kor-GLASS의 모든 참여 교수님들과 관계부처 공무원들의 노고에 감사드립니다.
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